Photography is an art form that captures moments in time and preserves them for eternity. With the advancement of technology, photography has evolved into various styles, each with its unique characteristics and techniques. From traditional to contemporary, understanding photography styles is crucial for photographers to convey their message and create a lasting impression. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the different photography styles, their origins, and the techniques used to achieve them. Get ready to discover the world of photography and learn how to describe photography styles like a pro!
Defining Photography Styles
Formalism
Formalism is a photography style that emphasizes the aesthetic qualities of an image, such as composition, form, and texture. It is characterized by a focus on the visual elements of an image, rather than its subject matter.
- Definition:
- Formalism is a style of photography that prioritizes the visual qualities of an image over its subject matter.
- It is concerned with the arrangement of visual elements in an image, such as line, shape, form, texture, and color.
- Formalism seeks to create images that are visually appealing and aesthetically pleasing, rather than conveying a specific message or meaning.
- Characteristics:
- Emphasis on visual elements: Formalism focuses on the visual elements of an image, such as line, shape, form, texture, and color, rather than its subject matter.
- Aesthetic appeal: Formalism aims to create images that are visually appealing and aesthetically pleasing, rather than conveying a specific message or meaning.
- Composition: Formalism often employs principles of composition, such as the rule of thirds, leading lines, and symmetry, to create visually pleasing images.
- Abstractness: Formalism often employs abstraction, where the subject matter is not immediately recognizable, to create visually interesting images.
- Examples:
- Abstract images: Abstract images are often created using formalism, as they emphasize the visual elements of an image over its subject matter.
- Still life: Still life images often use formalism to create visually interesting arrangements of objects.
- Landscape: Landscape images can also use formalism to create visually appealing images that emphasize the beauty of the natural world.
Realism
Realism is a photography style that aims to capture the essence of reality in a photograph. It involves capturing a scene or subject as it appears in real life, without any manipulation or distortion.
Characteristics of Realism
- Emphasis on accuracy and truthfulness
- Objective representation of the subject matter
- No artificial lighting or enhancements
- Focus on the details of the scene or subject
- Use of natural light and ambient lighting
- Avoiding any form of artificiality
Examples of Realism
- Street photography: capturing the essence of daily life on the streets, focusing on people, architecture, and urban landscapes.
- Documentary photography: capturing real-life situations, events, and social issues to raise awareness and tell a story.
- Photojournalism: capturing newsworthy events and happenings, often in a documentary-style format.
In conclusion, realism is a photography style that seeks to capture the essence of reality, with an emphasis on accuracy and truthfulness. It is often used in street, documentary, and photojournalism photography to tell a story or capture a moment in time.
Impressionism
Impressionism is a photography style that focuses on capturing the essence of a scene or subject, rather than striving for perfect technical accuracy. It emphasizes the use of light, color, and composition to create a sense of atmosphere and mood.
* Use of light and shadow to create a sense of depth and dimensionality
* Focus on capturing the overall feeling of a scene, rather than individual details
* Emphasis on color and composition to convey mood and atmosphere
* Frequent use of wide-angle lenses to capture a broad view of the scene
* Use of motion blur or long exposures to create a sense of movement or impression of the scene
* Frequent use of natural light and available light rather than flash or artificial light sources
* Emphasis on the spontaneous moment, capturing the fleeting moment rather than the posed or staged image
* The photographer’s personal interpretation and subjective feelings are evident in the image
* Unique and creative use of angles, perspectives, and framing
* The photographer’s intent to convey an impression rather than a literal representation
* Often associated with a sense of nostalgia, romanticism, or melancholy
+ “The Great Wave” by Katsushika Hokusai
+ “The Scream” by Edvard Munch
+ “The Boulevard des Capucines” by Claude Monet
+ “Rain, Steam, and Speed – The Great Western Railway” by J.M.W. Turner
+ “A Bar at the Folies-Bergère” by Édouard Manet
+ “Nighthawks” by Edward Hopper
+ “American Gothic” by Grant Wood
+ “The Persistence of Memory” by Salvador Dalí
+ “Migrant Mother” by Dorothea Lange
+ “Vogue 1920” by Edward Steichen
Abstract
Definition
Abstract photography is a genre that focuses on capturing non-representational images that evoke emotion and interpretation rather than depicting a specific subject or scene. These images are often created by isolating elements from their natural context and presenting them in a way that emphasizes form, color, and texture. Abstract photography can be created using a variety of techniques, including manipulation of the film or digital image during the development process, as well as digital editing and post-processing.
Characteristics
One of the defining characteristics of abstract photography is its lack of reference to the external world. Instead, the photographer seeks to create an image that stands on its own, without the need for a specific subject or context. Abstract photographs often use strong colors, dramatic contrast, and unusual angles to create a sense of movement and energy. The subject matter can range from natural forms such as flowers, rocks, and landscapes to man-made objects such as machinery, architecture, and household items.
Examples
- “Composition VII” by Wassily Kandinsky, which features a complex arrangement of geometric shapes and lines, is considered one of the first examples of abstract photography.
- “The Convergence of the Railroad Tracks” by Alexander Rodchenko, which uses a high angle shot to create a dynamic composition of intersecting train tracks, is another influential example of abstract photography.
- “Untitled” by Minor White, which features a close-up view of a rock formation, is an example of abstract photography that uses the natural world as inspiration for abstraction.
- “Celestial II” by Harold Edmondson, which features a series of overlapping circles, is an example of abstract photography that is created through digital manipulation of the image.
Documentary
Documentary photography is a style of photography that aims to capture and communicate real-life events, people, and situations in a truthful and unbiased manner. It is a form of storytelling that uses images to convey a message or narrative, often shedding light on social, political, or cultural issues. Documentary photography is concerned with presenting the facts and the reality of a particular situation, rather than manipulating or staging the image.
- Authenticity: Documentary photography is characterized by its commitment to truth and authenticity. The images should accurately represent the subject matter and reflect the reality of the situation.
- Storytelling: Documentary photography tells a story or conveys a message, often highlighting social, political, or cultural issues. The images should be sequenced in a way that creates a narrative and leads the viewer through the story.
- Context: Documentary photography provides context and background information to help the viewer understand the subject matter. This may include historical or cultural information, as well as the photographer’s perspective on the issue.
- Emotion: Documentary photography aims to evoke an emotional response in the viewer, drawing attention to the subject matter and encouraging the viewer to engage with the issue.
Some notable examples of documentary photography include:
- “The Family of Man” by Edward Steichen: An exhibition of photographs that explores the human experience, from birth to death, and the universal themes of love, joy, and sorrow.
- “Migrant Mother” by Dorothea Lange: An iconic image of a mother and her children during the Great Depression, which has come to symbolize the struggles of migrant workers during that time.
- “Nelson Mandela and the Elders” by Steven Meisel: A series of portraits of Nelson Mandela and other prominent figures, including Jimmy Carter and Kofi Annan, that explore issues of peace, justice, and human rights.
- “Inside North Korea” by David Guttenfelder: A series of photographs that provide a rare glimpse into life inside North Korea, revealing the everyday struggles and hardships faced by the people.
Art
Art photography is a style that is often characterized by its focus on aesthetics and creativity. This style of photography often seeks to convey an artistic message or express a personal vision. Art photographers often experiment with different techniques and styles, pushing the boundaries of traditional photography to create unique and thought-provoking images.
Definition
Art photography is a style of photography that prioritizes artistic expression and creativity over capturing a specific moment or scene. It often involves experimentation with composition, lighting, and other elements to create images that are visually striking and thought-provoking.
Characteristics
Some of the key characteristics of art photography include:
- Emphasis on aesthetics and creativity
- Experimentation with composition and lighting
- Focus on personal vision and artistic message
- Use of unusual angles, perspectives, and other techniques to create unique images
- Often black and white, or in bold colors
Examples
Some famous examples of art photography include:
- “The Great Wave” by Katsushika Hokusai
- “The Body of Christ” by Anna Atkins
- “Moonrise” by Edward Steichen
- “Dead Troops Talk” by Joe Sacco
- “Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Veil” by Nan Goldin
In summary, art photography is a style that emphasizes artistic expression and creativity, often through experimentation with composition and lighting. It focuses on conveying a personal vision and message, and often uses unique techniques and bold colors to create visually striking images.
Analyzing Photography Styles
Subject Matter
When analyzing photography styles, one of the key factors to consider is the subject matter. The subject matter of a photograph refers to the object or objects that are being captured by the camera. Here are some of the most common types of subject matter in photography:
People
Photographs of people can be a powerful way to tell a story or convey an emotion. Portraits, for example, are often used to capture the essence of a person’s character or personality. Street photography often features people in their natural environment, capturing candid moments and expressions. Photographs of people can also be used to document historical events or social issues.
Landscapes
Landscape photography captures the beauty of the natural world, from vast vistas to intimate details. Landscape photographers often seek to convey the mood and atmosphere of a place, as well as its physical features. They may use a variety of techniques, such as long exposures or panoramic shots, to create a sense of depth and scale.
Still Life
Still life photography involves arranging objects in a composition to create a still life image. Still life photographs can be used to showcase the beauty of everyday objects, or to convey a message or emotion. Still life photographers often use lighting and composition to create a sense of depth and dimensionality in their images.
Street Photography
Street photography captures the energy and vitality of urban life. Street photographers often seek to capture candid moments and interactions between people in public spaces. They may use a variety of techniques, such as shooting from unusual angles or using a wide-angle lens, to create a sense of immediacy and intimacy in their images.
Understanding the different types of subject matter in photography can help you to analyze and appreciate the various styles and techniques used by photographers.
Composition
Photography composition refers to the arrangement of visual elements within a photograph, including the placement of subjects, the use of negative space, and the application of various techniques to create a cohesive and visually appealing image. Understanding the principles of composition is essential for photographers, as it allows them to control the viewer’s attention and guide them through the image.
Rule of Thirds
The rule of thirds is a fundamental principle of photography composition that suggests dividing an image into thirds, both horizontally and vertically, and placing key elements of the image at the intersection points or along the lines. This technique creates a sense of balance and tension in the image, drawing the viewer’s eye to the subject and providing a more dynamic and engaging composition.
Leading Lines
Leading lines is a technique that involves using lines within the image to lead the viewer’s eye from one point to another, creating a sense of depth and movement. These lines can be natural, such as a road or a river, or man-made, such as a wall or a set of stairs. By using leading lines, photographers can direct the viewer’s attention to the subject and create a more dynamic and engaging composition.
Framing
Framing refers to the use of elements within the image to enclose and emphasize the subject. This technique can be achieved by using natural elements, such as trees or rocks, or by using the camera’s built-in frame, such as a doorway or a window. Framing can create a sense of depth and dimension in the image, and it can also help to draw the viewer’s attention to the subject.
Depth of Field
Depth of field refers to the range of distance in an image that appears in focus, from the nearest point to the farthest point. By adjusting the aperture, shutter speed, and focal length of the lens, photographers can control the depth of field and create images with a shallow depth of field, where only the subject is in focus, or a deep depth of field, where the entire image is in focus. This technique can be used to create images with a sense of depth and dimensionality, and it can also be used to emphasize the subject and draw the viewer’s attention to it.
Lighting
In photography, lighting is a crucial element that can greatly affect the mood, tone, and overall aesthetic of an image. There are several types of lighting techniques that photographers can use to achieve different effects. Here are some of the most common types of lighting used in photography:
- Natural Light: Natural light is light that comes from the sun or other natural sources such as lamps and candles. Photographers often use natural light to create a soft, natural look in their images. They can also use it to create dramatic shadows and contrast.
- Artificial Light: Artificial light is light that is created by electricity. Photographers can use artificial light to create a specific mood or to control the light in a scene. There are several types of artificial lighting, including fluorescent lights, LED lights, and strobes.
- Studio Lighting: Studio lighting is lighting that is used in a controlled environment, such as a studio. Photographers can use studio lighting to create a specific mood or to control the light in a scene. Studio lighting can be used to create a soft, natural look or a dramatic, high-contrast look.
- Flash Lighting: Flash lighting is light that is created by a flash unit. Photographers can use flash lighting to create a specific mood or to control the light in a scene. Flash lighting can be used to create a soft, natural look or a dramatic, high-contrast look.
Overall, lighting is a crucial element in photography that can greatly affect the mood, tone, and overall aesthetic of an image. By understanding the different types of lighting techniques, photographers can use them to create specific effects and achieve their desired outcome.
Color
Color is an essential element in photography that can significantly impact the mood, tone, and overall message of an image. Understanding the principles of color theory and how to effectively use different color schemes can help photographers create powerful and visually appealing photographs.
Color Theory
Color theory is the study of how colors interact with each other and how they can be used to create different moods and emotions in an image. It involves understanding the basics of the color wheel, color harmony, and color contrast. Photographers should be familiar with color theory to create images that are visually pleasing and effective in conveying their message.
Black and White
Black and white photography is a classic style that has been used for over a century. It is a timeless and versatile style that can be used to create dramatic and moody images. Black and white photography is created by capturing an image in monochrome, which means that it is composed of different shades of gray. The absence of color can help to emphasize form, texture, and tone, making it an excellent choice for photographers who want to create images that are rich in contrast and atmosphere.
Monochromatic
Monochromatic photography is a style that involves using a single color or a limited color palette to create an image. This style is often used to create a sense of unity and harmony in an image. Monochromatic photography can be used to create images that are subtle and understated or bold and dramatic, depending on the photographer’s intention.
Complementary Colors
Complementary colors are colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel. They are known to create a sense of contrast and energy when used together. Complementary colors can be used to create images that are bold and vibrant or subtle and understated, depending on the photographer’s intention. This style is often used in fashion and advertising photography to create images that are visually striking and memorable.
Form and Structure
Lines
In photography, lines can be used to create depth, guide the viewer’s eye, and convey movement. They can be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal, and their length, width, and direction can all have an impact on the overall composition of the image. For example, a diagonal line can create a sense of movement and energy, while a horizontal or vertical line can create a sense of stability or calmness.
Shapes
Shapes in photography can be geometric or organic, and they can be used to create contrast, balance, and emphasis. For example, a square shape can create a sense of stability and balance, while a circular shape can create a sense of movement and energy. Shapes can also be used to create depth and dimension in an image, such as by using leading lines or framing.
Texture
Texture in photography can add depth, interest, and emotion to an image. It can be used to convey a sense of touch or tactility, and it can also be used to create contrast and emphasis. Texture can be found in natural elements such as rocks, leaves, and tree bark, or it can be created through the use of light and shadow.
Patterns
Patterns in photography can be used to create a sense of order and repetition, and they can also be used to create contrast and emphasis. They can be found in natural elements such as clouds, sand, and water, or they can be created through the use of light and shadow. Patterns can also be used to create a sense of movement and energy in an image, such as by using leading lines or framing.
Appreciating Photography Styles
History of Photography
Photography has a rich and storied history, dating back to the early 19th century. The art form has evolved significantly over the years, and it is important to understand the various stages that it has gone through in order to appreciate the different photography styles that exist today.
Early Photography
Early photography can be traced back to the invention of the camera in 1839 by French inventor Joseph Nicephore Niepce. The earliest photographs were produced using a process called heliography, which involved exposing an image onto a metal plate coated with a light-sensitive substance. These images were then developed using a combination of light and chemicals.
Modern Photography
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern photography, with the introduction of new technologies and techniques. One of the most significant developments was the invention of roll film by Eastman Kodak in 1885, which made it possible to mass-produce photographic film. This led to the development of handheld cameras, and photography became more accessible to the general public.
During this time, several photography styles emerged, including pictorialism, which emphasized the artistic qualities of photography, and straight photography, which sought to capture a more objective view of the world.
Contemporary Photography
Contemporary photography encompasses a wide range of styles and techniques, from traditional film-based photography to digital photography and manipulation. With the advent of digital technology, photography has become more democratic, and anyone with a smartphone can capture and share images.
Contemporary photography is also characterized by its diversity, with photographers exploring a wide range of subjects and styles, from documentary and street photography to fine art and conceptual photography. Some notable contemporary photographers include Cindy Sherman, Richard Avedon, and Sally Mann.
In conclusion, understanding the history of photography is essential for appreciating the different photography styles that exist today. From the early days of heliography to the contemporary digital age, photography has come a long way, and its evolution continues to shape the way we see and interpret the world around us.
The Role of Photography in Society
- Documenting History
Photography has played a crucial role in documenting historical events, providing a visual record of the past that can be studied and analyzed by future generations. From the earliest photographs to contemporary digital images, photography has captured the essence of important moments in history, allowing us to gain a deeper understanding of the past and its impact on the present.
- Advocacy
Photography has also been a powerful tool for advocacy, enabling photographers to raise awareness about social and political issues. By capturing the struggles and triumphs of marginalized communities, photographers have helped to bring attention to injustices and promote change. Whether through powerful images of civil rights protests or heart-wrenching portraits of refugees, photography has the ability to move people to action and inspire change.
- Artistic Expression
Finally, photography has also played a significant role in artistic expression, providing a medium for artists to express their vision and creativity. From traditional darkroom techniques to digital manipulation, photographers have pushed the boundaries of the medium, experimenting with different styles, techniques, and subject matter. Through their art, photographers have been able to capture the beauty and complexity of the world around us, offering unique perspectives and insights into the human experience.
The Future of Photography Styles
The future of photography styles is constantly evolving, driven by technological advancements, changing trends, and emerging styles.
Technological Advancements
Technological advancements in cameras, lenses, and editing software are transforming the way photographers capture and manipulate images. Advances in digital sensors, artificial intelligence, and virtual reality technology are creating new possibilities for creative expression and storytelling. For example, mirrorless cameras are becoming increasingly popular due to their smaller size, improved autofocus, and higher dynamic range. Additionally, smartphone cameras are continuously improving, enabling amateur photographers to produce high-quality images with ease.
Changing Trends
Photography trends are constantly changing, and photographers must adapt to stay relevant. Social media platforms such as Instagram and TikTok have influenced the rise of certain styles, such as street photography and portrait photography. Moreover, the increasing demand for diverse representation in photography has led to a greater focus on documentary-style photography and photography that celebrates different cultures and communities.
Emerging Styles
New photography styles are emerging as photographers continue to push the boundaries of creativity. For instance, conceptual photography, which often incorporates elements of art and performance, is gaining popularity. Furthermore, photography that blends traditional and digital techniques, such as digital manipulation and 3D printing, is also emerging as a new style. As technology continues to advance, it is likely that even more innovative styles will emerge, further expanding the possibilities of photography.
Personal Expression
Finding Your Style
When it comes to personal expression through photography, finding your own unique style is crucial. It’s important to experiment with different techniques, subjects, and perspectives to discover what resonates with you and what you want to communicate through your photographs.
Developing Your Vision
Once you have a better understanding of your personal style, it’s important to develop your vision. This means thinking about what you want to say with your photographs and how you want to convey that message to your audience. Your vision should be unique to you and reflective of your personal experiences and perspectives.
Creating Meaningful Photographs
Once you have a clear vision, it’s time to start creating meaningful photographs. This means being intentional with your composition, lighting, and subject matter. Each element should work together to communicate your vision and message to your audience.
It’s also important to consider the context in which your photographs will be viewed. Think about the emotions and reactions you want to evoke in your audience and how you can use your photographs to convey those emotions.
Overall, personal expression through photography is about using the medium to communicate your unique perspective and vision to the world. By finding your style, developing your vision, and creating meaningful photographs, you can create powerful and impactful images that resonate with your audience.
Inspiration
Photography is an art form that is deeply influenced by the creative vision of the photographer. The following are some of the most effective ways to find inspiration when it comes to understanding photography styles:
Famous Photographers
One of the best ways to understand photography styles is to study the work of famous photographers. These individuals have developed their own unique style, which can be used as a source of inspiration for aspiring photographers. Studying the work of famous photographers can help to identify specific techniques and styles that can be used to improve your own photography.
Books and Publications
Books and publications related to photography can also be a great source of inspiration. These resources can provide valuable insights into different photography styles, as well as offer tips and techniques for improving your own photography. Some examples of books and publications that can be helpful for finding inspiration include “The Photography Bible: The Definitive Guide to Taking Better Photos” by Jenny A. Sneed and “Photography: The Whole Story: A Visual History from the First Camera Obscura to the Digital Age” by Susie Pratt.
Online Resources
In addition to books and publications, there are many online resources available that can provide inspiration for photographers. These resources can include photography blogs, social media accounts, and online photography communities. By exploring these resources, you can discover a wide range of photography styles and techniques, as well as connect with other photographers who can offer advice and support. Some examples of online resources that can be helpful for finding inspiration include “The Photography Edit” and “Photography Life”.
Gear and Techniques
Cameras and Lenses
Selecting the right camera and lenses is crucial in achieving the desired photography style. Each camera and lens has its unique characteristics, such as sensor size, aperture, and focal length, which can greatly impact the final image. Understanding the properties of these components and how they interact with one another is essential in choosing the appropriate gear for a specific photography style.
For instance, full-frame cameras are known for their ability to produce high-resolution images with excellent low-light performance, making them ideal for landscape and portrait photography. On the other hand, mirrorless cameras are lighter and more compact, making them a popular choice for street and travel photography.
Moreover, the choice of lenses plays a significant role in achieving a particular photography style. Wide-angle lenses are perfect for capturing expansive landscapes or dramatic cityscapes, while telephoto lenses are ideal for compressing the scene and creating a shallow depth of field in portrait photography.
Accessories
Accessories such as tripods, filters, and remote shutter releases can greatly enhance the quality of the final image by providing more control over the camera settings and minimizing camera shake. A tripod, for example, allows for precise framing and longer exposures, while filters can enhance the colors and contrast of the image. A remote shutter release, on the other hand, eliminates the risk of camera shake when using a long exposure or shooting in low light conditions.
Post-Processing Techniques
Post-processing techniques, such as editing software and plugins, can further enhance the final image by adjusting the exposure, color balance, and sharpness. Adobe Photoshop and Lightroom are popular editing software used by photographers to edit their images. These software tools allow photographers to make precise adjustments to the image, such as adjusting the brightness and contrast, removing unwanted elements, and adding special effects.
Overall, the right gear and techniques can greatly impact the final image and help photographers achieve their desired photography style. It is essential to understand the properties of the camera and lenses, as well as the benefits of accessories and post-processing techniques, to make informed decisions when selecting the appropriate gear for a specific photography style.
Joining the Community
Photography Clubs
- Joining a photography club is a great way to connect with other photographers and learn from their experiences.
- Photography clubs often organize meetings, events, and photo shoots, providing opportunities to network and practice photography skills.
- Many photography clubs have a diverse range of members, from beginners to professionals, offering a supportive and collaborative environment for all skill levels.
Online Communities
- Online communities are a valuable resource for photographers looking to connect with others and share their work.
- Platforms such as social media, photo-sharing websites, and photography forums provide a space for photographers to showcase their work, receive feedback, and connect with other photographers.
- Online communities also offer access to a wealth of information, including tutorials, tips, and techniques for improving photography skills.
Photography Workshops and Courses
- Photography workshops and courses provide an opportunity to learn from experienced photographers and gain new skills and knowledge.
- Workshops and courses can cover a wide range of topics, from basic camera techniques to advanced lighting and composition.
- Attending a workshop or course can also provide a chance to network with other photographers and gain inspiration and motivation for improving photography skills.
FAQs
1. What is photography style?
Photography style refers to the distinctive manner in which a photographer captures and presents an image. It encompasses the creative choices made by the photographer, including the use of light, composition, subject matter, and color. A photographer’s style is often reflected in the images they produce, and it can be used to distinguish their work from that of other photographers.
2. How do you determine a photographer’s style?
A photographer’s style can be determined by examining their body of work. It is often characterized by consistent elements such as composition, lighting, subject matter, and color. Additionally, a photographer’s style may be influenced by their personal experiences, artistic influences, and technical expertise.
3. What are some common photography styles?
There are many different photography styles, and some of the most common include landscape, portrait, street, documentary, fine art, and abstract. Each style has its own unique characteristics and is often associated with a particular photographer or school of thought.
4. How do you develop your own photography style?
Developing your own photography style involves exploring different techniques and experimenting with different subjects and compositions. It is important to find what inspires you and to use that as a starting point for your work. Additionally, studying the work of other photographers and understanding the principles of composition and design can help you develop your own unique style.
5. Can a photographer change their style?
Yes, a photographer can change their style over time. As they gain more experience and experiment with different techniques, they may find that their style evolves naturally. Additionally, a photographer may consciously choose to change their style in response to new influences or to adapt to changing circumstances.
6. How important is photography style?
Photography style is important because it allows photographers to differentiate themselves from others and to establish a distinctive voice in their work. It can also help to convey the intended message or mood of an image and can be used to evoke an emotional response in the viewer. Ultimately, photography style is a reflection of the photographer’s unique perspective and creative vision.
